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MIS Comprehensive Examinations (Part III, 2 of 4)

Master in International Studies’ Comprehensive Examinations
University of the Philippines-Diliman
 

August 24, 2009

A. Islamic Studies 231 (Islamic Political Thought)
 
Question number TWO:

Discuss Al-Afghani’s “Pan-Islamism” and its various manifestations today

Al-Afghani was one of the revolutionary philosophers and political scientists who expounded on the idea of Pan-Islamism. He explained the necessity of the idea to the lost glory of the Islamic golden age during the advent of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) up to the four rightly-guided Caliphs.
It is different with Pan-Arabism which connotes the idea of unity among all the Arab people regardless of religion, ethnic affinity, and geographical context. Pan-Islamism is an aspiration of oneness and unity of all Muslims regardless of nationality, race, ethnicity, and other demographic elements. It is somehow paralleled to the idea of Ummah.
According to Al-Afghani, it can be attained through a people’s revolution pantheistically opposing the ideals that poisoned the sanctity of Islamic principles. He operationalized the idea by creating an institution that will protect, guide, and supervise the Pan-Islamic community. He commissioned the idea of going back to the era of the Khilafa (Caliphate) system with a Caliph that is selected based on the ijtimah of the maturity of the population through a shura process.
Consensus and communal integrity among the Muslims were the ingredients for the materialization of Pan-Islamism.
The idea of Pan-Islamism is highly manifested in international organizations and supranational organizations with common norms, values, mores, rules, principles and folkways. The European Union is an example of a pan-Europeanism with one free market, one judicial system, one banking system, one parliament, and soon there would be one government which they are now working on proposing it through their charter with one President as one of its provision.
The Arab League which is composed of Arab nations from the Southwest Asia to North Africa. They have a common language, culture, and state religion. The organization of Islamic Conference is also an example with member-countries that are predominantly Muslims. Another is the African Union wherein the members are situated in the continent of Africa. Also, the Organization of American State whereby the state-members are in North and South American continents except Cuba.
Every supranational society and/or international organizations are developed because of common understanding with areas that they have common interests with.

MIS Comprehensive Examinations (Part III, 1 of 4)

Master in International Studies’ Comprehensive Examinations
University of the Philippines-Diliman
 

August 24, 2009

A. Islamic Studies 231 (Islamic Political Thought)
 
Question number ONE:
Discuss 3 main themes each from the classical and contemporary Islamic political thinkers.

 

In the classical Islamic political thought, I have chosen three themes that were discussed and debated upon by classical political thinkers. These were: 1) The concept of state, 2) the concept of governance, and 3) selecting a leader.
Al-Mawardi was a famous and reputable political scientist which his works were still looked upon by scholars of this age. He is the first and foremost philosopher who envisaged a social contract mechanism between the people and their leader. This is of course before Jean Jacque Rousseau formulated this theory and made it his own.
He argued that there should be a loyalty between the two entities (the leader and the people), who significantly comprises a communal state. It is for the purpose of building trust, confidence and respect among them. He added that the leader must be intellectually inept and has a strong five senses to decide on matters and issues besetting his leadership with convictions. Al-Mawardi further reiterated that once a leader has lost its conviction and was affected by external forces and pressures, then, he is incapable of governing the state.
Al-Farabi distinctively suggested that the conception of the state must refer and look back on the community established by Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), i.e., the Ummah or community of believers, which follows the first egalitarian charter – the Madinah constitution – that recognized equality and respect among all different tribes and communities, from the Quaraysh to Christians and to the Jewish communities. It is the first universal constitution in the Arab world that does not intimidate nor prohibit the rights of people with no prejudice on their race, ethnicity, beliefs and orientations.
Al-Ghazali emphasized the divine rights of members of the monarch particularly the King. It is in his belief that the King was the anointed and appointed vicegerent of the Khilafah (Caliphate) for he is regard as the shadow of God (Allah) in this world. On trivial not, he is one of the most loyal servant of the Abbasid dynasty which during that time, the Abbasids were declining while outside forces from the Salafids (Persians) and the Seljuqs (Turks) are rising on its power and dominance based on a Sultanate system which may threaten the Caliphate system (which was predominantly Arabs).
He further elaborated that a Khalifah (Caliph) must be from the descendants of the Quaraysh tribe, a priestly class Arabs. Which was ironic that during the time Prophet Muhammad was propagating Islam but the Quaraysh was the one who attempted to assassinate him.
Ibn Khaldun has a different take on the formation of states, conception of governance and selection of a leader. In his thesis the “Science of Sociology,” he introduced the significance of umran (culture) in determining state formation. He classified the aspect of umran into two categories: 1) the primitive umran (which is situated in rural places) and, 2) the civilized umran (which is located in an urban places or cities). In both of this classification, he emphasized the role of “Asabiya” or a form of solidarity among the peoples in a community. He stipulated that in a rural, the selection of the leader is based on strong ‘Asabiya’ of blood kinship, while in an urban/city it is based on the ‘Asabiya’ of consultation (shura).
Consequently, state-governance had undergone evolution from the discovery of Asabiya (birth-level), to the build-up of a civilization (youth level), and to the age of senility or the decaying stage of the state. But according to Ibn Khaldun, it is a cyclical process that after the decaying stage, a rebirth of ‘Asabiya’ will occur.
Westernization, Secularism, and Nationalism are the themes that I will discuss for the contemporary Islamic political thoughts.
During the age of colonization up to the present day; members of the ijmah or ulama were debating on how Islam would face challenges of new and Western ideals. Muhammad Abduh reifies the compatibility of reason and Islamic faith, which both can go along with each other. He and his student Rida advocated the adaptation of Western rationality through the reality of their scientific innovations and technological advancements, but, strongly emphasized that the adaptations must be guided by Islamic principles.
Sayed Qutb in his work “Milestone” and A’la Maududi’s understanding of nationalism have strictly and seriously argued that the sovereignty only lies to God (Allah) and that their nationalistic sentiments must be with the Ummah only. They gave importance of applying the pure Islamic community which was established by Prophet Muhammad and that any nuisances or different forms other than the Ummah were highly regarded as evil.
They concentrated on the ideals of Dar al-Islam (community of believers) and the Dar al-Kafr (community of non-believers). Non-Muslims living in Dar al-Islam must pay higher taxes and submit to policies guided by Islam. It is necessary to impose Jihad to defend Islamic nationalism particularly Western nations and even Muslim societies who submit to Western ideals.
Mustafa Kemal Ataturk of Turkey implemented a secularist nation after he abolished the Ottoman system. He separated religious and political institutions. He reformed the educational system based on liberal ideals of the West particularly imitating the American educational system. He even changed the Turkish alphabets by including the Latin language. 
However, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini incorporated, in what he regards, an authentic Islamic state based on Shi’i traditions. He established the conception of the “velayat-e faqih,” which is a society ruled by Islamic jurists (ulama). He also stated that there is a possibility of the absence of an Imam as long as the efficacy of the Islamic jurists are maintained and sustained.
In sum, there are contemporary Islamic political thinkers who embraced Western ideals but with delimitations, while there are those who strongly opposes by validating that it contradicts with what Islam taught us.

MIS Comprehensive Examinations (Part II, 3 of 3)

Master in International Studies’ Comprehensive Examinations
University of the Philippines-Diliman
 

August 17, 2009

B. Question number FOUR (International Affairs):
The protests over the results of the latest Iranian elections have become a global concern. Why? How can you explain this phenomenon theoretically?

 

With the advent of the Safavid Empire in West Asia, there was a great alteration of the Persian politics – it is the coming of an Islamic age in great Persia. I have to emphasize the etymological description of these two terms, i.e., Iran and Persia. It was in the regime of Reza Pahlavi that he constructively separated the utility of Iran from Persia. He implemented an executive order that Iran will be used in a political sense classifying the modern state, while Persia will be used in a cultural sense from ancient history to mores and folkways.
Moreover with the coming of Islam in Iran, it was further politically materialized when Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini led an Islamic revolution in 1979; even he was ostracized by the Western back-up regime to France. How ironic because at that time, Khomeini wanted to stay in Iraq but Saddam Hussein rejected his proposal and that is why he was able to study the norms and laws of the Western world when he was exiled in France.
Now that Iran became an Islamic Republic with a system based on Khomeini’s ‘velayat e-faqih’ (a system ruled by a supreme leader, with religious and political power, separating its responsibilities to the head of state). The constitution of Iran is unique that it has different subsidiary organs and bodies which have different and unique roles and duties.
The 2009 Iranian election was supposedly a climax in Iranian politics. It was a battle between Ahmadinejad (the conservative, who would like to maintain the status quo) and Moussavi (the reformist, who would like to change the status quo and even contested the legitimacy of the supreme leader – the current Ayatollah Khamenie). 
It was an epic battle that may have changed Iranian’s art of governance if Moussavi had won, especially that he was relentlessly campaigned by his wife. A manifestation that emphasized the roles of women in the whole social, political and cultural strata of Iranian’s society. Not only a change in its domestic politics, but a configuration of ‘real politik’ in the Middle East region and in the world.
Robert Cox’s “Critical theory” emphasized the significance of culture and religion in the behavior or norms of a state. Iran’s Islamic Republic prevailed over the reformers and was materialized with the help of a hegemon within the state’s affair, i.e., the supreme leader. Much of the Iranians, with an exception numbers from the youth (who was borne after 1979), wanted to preserve its traditions, culture, and maintain the status quo.
This theory further explained that all knowledge is ideationally interconnected. Rejecting that there are “no facts” about the world only ideas are existing. Khomeini’s velayat e-faqih plus Islam is equals to an idea that displayed a politically constructed Iranian politics and its views to the world. Some of the norms, mores, and folkways were gradually modified. Even a social construction about the family, the roles of men and women were constructively altered basing on Shites traditions with additional teachings from Khomeini.
The election in Iran is a global concern because the result of it might change how the Iranians conceive its relations to the world, particularly to the US, Israel, and to the Arab world. The US and Israel’s securitization of Iran’s nuclear energy is a major issue and debated among IR scholars. Israel is consistent in delivering its ‘speech act’ that Iran is an existential threat to the Israeli’s nationhood or survival and to the peace process with the Palestinian people (Barry Buzan and Olan Waever, the Copenhagen Securitization framework).
Realists contend that since Israel has an allegedly advanced nuclear arsenal then Iran will do the same, procuring nuclear technologies to develop weapons because they sees Israel’s nuclear weapons as a threat to their security, thus a security dilemma is taking place. (John Herz, Security Dilemma in International Politics) More so, a mirror-imaging is happening; just like what occurred in the arms race between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War.
Holsti in his work about principles, objectives, and conducts of foreign policy argued that with this kind of scenario, i.e., Israel perceived Iran as a threat to their survival because of the rhetoric of Pres. Ahmadinejad at the Columbia University that Zionism must be eliminated from the page of time, and not as what the international media is saying – Israel must be wipe-out off the map, quoting the late Ayatollah Khomeini, and the resentment over religious turfs between the Sunnis (Arab countries) and the Shites (Iran and Syria) is an indication that the Arab countries (together with the out-casted Libya of Khadafi) might counter the perceived rising hegemony status of Iran through a foreign policy approach of balancing. 
Pres. Obama would still engage diplomatically with the Iranian regime on the nuclear issue and would now become ‘tough’ with the Israeli regime on the resettlement issues in East Jerusalem and the West Bank. Therefore, the Iranian election underlines the complexities attached in its political and power struggle in the region. Not only in the region, world powers have interests in the Iranian politics, i.e., the US diplomatic engagement with Iran on nuclear issue, China as the biggest consumer of Iranian oil and gas, and Russia’s military commitment with Iran (that if it is attacked, Russia will compel a ‘Second strike’.
Therefore, the Iranian election underlines the complexities attached in its political and power struggle in the region. Not only in the region, world powers have interests in the Iranian politics, i.e., the US diplomatic engagement with Iran on nuclear issue, China as the biggest consumer of Iranian oil and gas, and Russia’s military commitment with Iran (that if it is attacked, Russia will compel a ‘Second strike’ target to the attacker) – this is also embodied in the provisions of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO). 

MIS Comprehensive Examinations (Part II, 2 of 3)

Master in International Studies’ Comprehensive Examinations
University of the Philippines-Diliman
 

August 17, 2009

A. Question number TWO (ASEAN Affairs):
The presence of State Secretary Hillary Clinton at the ASEAN Regional Forum Senior Officials Meeting was partially intended to send the signal that the United States was “back” in Southeast Asia. What is the significance of this message to the countries in Southeast Asia? What does it illustrate at how international relations is framed in Southeast Asian affairs?

 

The presence of State Secretary Hillary Clinton at the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) Senior Officials Meeting sent a significant message to the Southeast Asian countries that the US hegemony will remain strong in the region despite its experiences from the effects of a financial crisis and economic recession, and also, to counter the rising dominance and power of China in Southeast Asia as an arbitrary balancer, so to speak.
This manifestation debunks the ‘Declinist School of thought’ originated from the work of Paul Kennedy, which stipulates a reduced or declined in the legitimate power of the United States in the world, and soon will be in counter-hegemony with the European Union, China, India, Russia or even Brazil through balancing, bandwagoning, hedging, leash-slipping among these actors in the international system. 
The event justified the empirical findings presented by Charles Krauthammer in his work “The Unipolar Moment” concomitant with Stephen Krasner’s Unilateralism. These two views emphasized the legitimacy and power of the US hegemony encompassing space but delimited in a given time period, i.e., from the post-Cold era to the present.
As embedded in the 2006 National Security Strategy of the United States, two specific premises were constructed: 1) to promote freedom, justice, and democracy; 2) to lead the nations of the world to uphold democratic ideals in its governance. These two principles embody the US foreign policy in its conduct and promulgation.
John Gerard Ruggie’s “Constructing World Polity” argues that the US action in the ARF meeting was a manifestation of adhering to the ideals of Multilateralism as opposed to the propositions purported by Krauthammer and Krasner. It is a stealth Unipolar and unilateral action. Because of the US economic recession and the unpopular legacy of the Bush administration, Pres. Obama and his team has no other way but revived the US legitimate hegemony in the international community.
The Secretary of State is busy strengthening the US relations in every part of the world especially in the Muslim world. One of which is strengthening its political and security relations with the countries in the Southeast Asia through the channel of the ASEAN Regional Forum. Continuing the fight against terrorism, pressuring Myanmar regarding the Suu Kyi’s case, and conducting its ‘Grand Strategy’ in the region.
Employing joint military exercises with the Philippines, Indonesia, and now Vietnam. The US sent military officials and soldiers in Laos and Cambodia to teach with their counterparts of the use of the English language – a similar strategy when they emancipated the Philippines educational system by sending soldiers as teachers for the Filipinos. They enhanced its military and defense relationship with Indonesia because according to American think tanks, they foresee the dominant (leadership) role of Indonesia in the region with their vast resources – demography, strategic land areas, and economic capabilities by 2020s.
A part of this grand strategy are the US-India nuclear partnership, the US-Japan Theater Missile Defense (TMD) treaty and helping Japan to become one of the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council, and the US hedging engagement with China through building military partnerships with China’s neighbors (to contain its hegemony in Asia) while maintaining strategic economic relations with China.
Consequently, with these underlying occurring events, the international relations in Southeast Asia is becoming highly complex interdependence as Charles Doytes’ “transactionalism” explained based from Keohane’s and Nye’s “Power and Interdependence,” but with an additional element on Doytes studies; the US is building a security community in Southeast Asia. 

MIS Comprehensive Examinations (Part II, 1 of 3)

Master in International Studies’ Comprehensive Examinations
University of the Philippines-Diliman
 

August 17, 2009

Required question number ONE:
Should ASEAN intervene in the trial of Daw Aung San Suu Kyi? If yes, how and why? If no, why not? Explain your answer with reference to a specific theoretical perspective in international relations.

 

The trial of Daw Aung San Suu kyi has sparked widespread criticisms in the international community especially from democratic nations (which are mostly Western states and some ASEAN member states). It was interpreted by some hard-line critics as a ‘Kangaroo court’ because the judicial system of Myanmar (Burma) was heavily controlled by the military regime.
If we will based in a realistically manner – a common understanding of the existence of a reality – then we can easily assume that Realism or even Neorealism can be an appropriate International Relations theory to explain the situation, i.e., answering the question. However, the question also posited other theoretical notion(s) in international relations which may give alternative explanation, in theoretical manner, the hypothetical possibilities of ascertaining a different angle or side of the story of a particular situation.
Liberalism or even Liberal Institutionalism (Neoliberalism in short) can give its perspective to describes, explains, and predicts the overall outcome of the trial. David Baldwin in his work “Neorealism and Neoliberalism Debate in Contemporary World Politics” argued that every authors, writers, or scholars had ‘normative biases’ which were grounded from their upbringing and certain values.
In my own perspective, Realism can best answer the postulated query, from its interpretation of the conception of intervention to the simplistic rational outcome of the issue. This theory emphasized the centrality and autonomy of a state, which concentrates on the pursuit of its interest by means of power (only high politics issue area) as a leverage in an anarchical international system.
Member states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) have no right to intervene in the domestic affairs of each member as embodied in the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation (TAC) enunciated by the principle of non-interference. According to one of the core principles or epistemological assumptions of Realism, the autonomy and centrality of states is the most significant and important construction of state in the international system. The reason being is that it emphasized its authoritative power through sovereignty (Robert Jervis, Abiding Sovereignty).
Sovereignty is the supreme will of a state for it gives authority to hold a definite juridical territory with a given community of peoples. Other scholars would add the element of recognition to sovereign state by another state. These are the two kinds of sovereignty – the internal and the external sovereignties.
Realists contend that intervening in the domestic affairs of a state is a breach to its sovereignty. And even if ASEAN intervenes, the military regime in Myanmar will rationally maximized its self-centered interest as a form of their national interests by raising a veto in the decision-making system of the ASEAN, which permeates that when one member raised their objection through a veto regarding an issue in the ‘Leaders Summit’, then, that issue will not be decided or resolved. ASEAN follows the principle of consensus as the only decision-making process.
Further, if ASEAN compels to intervene in the trial, Myanmar will not comply to any actions made by the association for it will not be punished.

 

In sum, the court’s verdict to Daw Aung San Suu Kyi was 3 years of imprisonment with heavy public community services but was downgraded to 18 moths of house arrest as ordered by the military regime. This resulted to a public outrage and havoc from the international community, even in the statements delivered by co-ASEAN members. The theory of Realism was the appropriate operational language in explaining this particular situation.